Slow-pitch softball is a beloved sport that has gained immense popularity recently. Whether you play for fun or competition, having the right equipment can make all the difference in your performance on the field. One of the most important pieces of equipment for slow-pitch softball is the bat. A good slow-pitch softball bat should provide the right balance of weight, length, and grip to help you hit the ball with maximum power and accuracy. Choosing the best slow-pitch softball bat can be overwhelming, with so many different options on the market. In this blog post, we’ll take a closer look at what to consider when choosing a slow-pitch softball bat, and we’ll highlight some of the best options available to help you make an informed decision.
Best Slow Pitch Softball Bat Reviews

Our Top 3 Picks

#Top 1
Miken 2021 DC 41, Slowpitch Softball Bat, 14 in. Barrel, USA/ASA Supermax, 34x28oz, White/Black
Amazon.com
Miken 2021 DC 41, Slowpitch Softball Bat, 14 in. Barrel, USA/ASA Supermax,...
out of stock
#Top 2
Easton Hammer Power Loaded Slowpitch Softball Bat, 32/25, 12 Barrel, 1PC Aluminum, SP21HM, Dual Stamp, multicolor
Amazon.com
Easton Hammer Power Loaded Slowpitch Softball Bat, 32/25, 12 Barrel, 1PC...
out of stock
#Top 3
Miken Exclusive 2021 Chaos All Association Slowpitch Softball Bat, 14 inch barrel length, 26 inch
Amazon.com
Miken Exclusive 2021 Chaos All Association Slowpitch Softball Bat, 14 inch...
out of stock

What is the slow-pitch softball bat?

“slow-pitch softball bat” is a softball bat designed for slow-pitch softball games. Slow-pitch softball is the most popular form of softball in the United States. It is a game played with a larger ball (which is soft) and a pitcher who throws underhand. The field has more space, and the softball bat is softer because it is for a smaller ball. The slow-pitch softball bat differs from the hardball bat used in fast-pitch softball games and baseball. A slow-pitch softball bat is different because it has a larger barrel, and the space between the handle and the barrel is longer. In slow-pitch softball, the batter must use a bat that is no more than 24 ounces, and the pitchers must use a bat that is no more than 16 ounces. In theory, lighter bats are easier to swing, resulting in slower and less powerful balls. Heavier bats result in more powerful and faster balls, but they are harder to swing.

1. Easton HAMMER Slowpitch Softball Bat:

Easton’s HAMMER lineup has seen plenty of upgrades this year, but the company’s signature slowpitch bat, the HAMMER, got a facelift in 2019. The key change on the HAMMER is its redesigned barrel; the two-piece barrel now has a seemingly endless taper from the handle to the barrel’s end. Easton says the taper delivers a faster swing, allowing the batter to accelerate faster. The new material on the barrel’s end also helps the bat’s sweet spot last longer than previous HAMMERs. Their success in the slow-pitch softball world has resulted in a manufacturer’s title of “The softball bat company.” The Easton HAMMER is their latest in a line of well-designed slow-pitch softball bats.Best Slow Pitch Softball Bat Reviews| Easton HAMMER

Special features:

  • It is made up of ALX50 military-grade aluminum alloy.
  • It has a barrel of 12”.
  • It has ultra-thin handle

Pros:

  • It is certified by ASA, USSSA etc.
  • It has 1-piece construction.

Cons:

  •  It gets dented easily.

Learn More: Best Slowpitch Softball Bats For Cold Weather

2. Easton REBEL Slowpitch Softball Bat:

REBEL bats are Easton’s answer to the middle-ground batter: they’re not designed to be the strongest bats you can buy, but they’re also not as light as the company’s entry-level bats. The REBELs are designed to hit the sweet spot more often than Easton’s other bats, and as a result, they’re a popular choice for slowpitch softball players. The REBEL is also one of the first bats to feature the new Reflex Alloy, which gives a better feel and a more solid hit than the company’s previous bats. Easton already makes a line of slowpitch softball bats called the REBEL, but their newest model promises to be faster while remaining just as light. It’s also slightly taller than other slowpitch bats, which might help you hit the ball more squarely if you’re not used to slow-pitch softball. The REBEL SST is much like its predecessor (the original Easton Softball REBEL) in terms of its weight distribution: a little bit heavier in the barrel than in the handle for more power and better bat speed.Best Slow Pitch Softball Bat Reviews |Easton

Special features:

  • It is made up of ALX50 military-grade aluminum alloy.
  • It has faster swings due to this alloy.
  • It has an ultra-thin grip handle which gives comfort in various weather conditions.
  • It maximizes bat speed.
  • It also maximizes hitting distance as well.

Pros:

  • It is certified by USSSA, NSA, etc.
  • It comes in different sizes.
  • It has an ultra sports grip.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

3. Miken DC-41 ASA Supermax Slowpitch Softball Bat:

The Miken DC-41 ASA Supermax slowpitch softball bat is a single-piece bat with an elliptical handle. It is a balanced bat weighing in at a whopping two pounds and two ounces. This bat is great for hitters who like to swing a heavy bat. Bat technology has come a long way since slow-pitch softball bats first made the scene in 1958, and Miken is the one brand that’s led the way. The company’s bats have set the standard for the slow pitch game for years, and its new DC-41 ASA Supermax model is a worthy successor. Designed for the ASA-sanctioned “baseball” division, the DC-41’s barrel is made of Miken’s patented Aerofiber Composite, which is lighter than wood, but more durable than aluminum, so it doesn’t crack or dent like other composite bats. Like a driver hitting a baseball, a bat is only as good as its weakest link. And the weakest link in a slow-pitch softball bat is the connection between the barrel and the handle.Best Slow Pitch Softball Bat Reviews| Miken 2019 DC-41 ASA Supermax Slowpitch

Special features:

  • It has a 14-inch barrel.
  • It has F2P barrel technology.
  • It has revolutionary 100 COMP composite fibers.
  • It is made of a 2-piece composite.
  • It has a 2.25-inch barrel diameter

Pros:

  • It has an extended sweet spot.
  • It is approved for play in all ASA leagues.
  • It comes in different configurations.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

Learn More: Best Slowpitch Softball Bats 

4. Louisville Slugger Maple Slowpitch Softball Bat:

This bat is made of maple, which is a very hard wood that is very popular with slowpitch players. Maple also has less flex than other woods. The Louisville Slugger Maple slowpitch bat has a 2-piece design and is well-balanced. The bat is said to be good for all levels of play and is well suited for an aggressive, fast swing style. When playing in a slow-pitch softball league, you want to be sure you’re using the right equipment. Since we’re players and know that making mistakes on the field can cost you games—we’ve written extensively on everything from gloves to cleats to protective equipment. One big piece of equipment is the bat, so we’ve decided to review the Louisville Slugger Maple Slowpitch Softball Bat.Best Slow Pitch Softball Bat Reviews | Louisville Slugger Maple MSB3

See Also:   Best Fastpitch Softball Bats Under $100 Reviews for 2023 [User Recommendations]

Special features:

  • It is made up of maple wood.
  • It comes in different sizes.

Pros:

  • Good bat for a decent value.
  • It is a good bat for local wood-bat tournaments.

Cons:

  •  No shipment in Africa.

Related Product: Best Slowpitch Softball Bats

5. BamBooBat Trifecta Softball:

You can probably agree that bats are important if you are a slow-pitch softball player. The right bat can make the difference between making that perfect hit and getting left in the dust by a fast-pitch softball player. Over the years, many bats have proven to be some of the best in the game, but there are also a lot of cheap, poorly made bats out there as well. That is why it is so important for you to know what bats are the best softball bats for this season. After a week of experimentation, we are very confident that the 5.BamBooBat Trifecta is the best slow pitch softball bat money can buy. It is very affordable and uses advanced technologies and design fundamentals to maximize performance. Although the Trifecta is not the most expensive option, it has all the features you need to make your slow-pitch softball game a success.BamBooBat Trifecta Softball

Special features:

  • It is made up of the highest quality bamboo.
  • It has strong durability.
  • It is stronger than maple softball bats.
  • It has more PSI breakpoints.

Pros:

  • Comes with a 1 year against breakage.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

Learn More: Top 10 Best Slowpitch Softball Bats

6. EASTON FIRE FLEX IV Mid Load Slowpitch Softball Bat:

There are many things to consider when looking for a new slowpitch softball bat. The right bat for you has to be the right weight and length and, most importantly, one that feels comfortable in your hands. A bat you feel you can hit well with is the most important factor in your game. If you like the bat you are using it will affect your confidence which will affect your game. Easton is a brand quickly known for its high-quality and innovative softball gear. With the release of the Fire Flex IV, Easton is once again pushing the limits of what is possible in softball bats. The Fire Flex IV is made from a super strong aluminium alloy that allows for a super light bat. This makes the Fire Flex IV a good choice for players who want a quick swing speed.EASTON FIRE FLEX IV Mid Load USSSA

Special features:

  • It has ultra-Elongated fibres.
  • It is optimized for player weighting – mid-load.
  • It has a 13.5” barrel.
  • It has a Carbon zero handle.

Pros:

  • It comes in different barrel sizes.
  • It is approved for play in USSSA, ISA, and NSA.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

7. Miken Last Call Maxload Slowpitch Softball Bat:

Miken is a bat brand always on the cutting edge of technology. While other bat companies are still trying to perfect the formula for making slow-pitch softball bats, Miken has already released its latest generation. The Last Call Maxload Slowpitch Softball Bat perfectly combines Miken’s biggest innovations. They took the technology that they used to make their popular Maximum series slow-pitch softball bats. They combined it with the technology that they use in the Pro series, resulting in Miken’s biggest, lightest slow-pitch softball bats ever. The Miken Last Call Maxload Slowpitch Softball Bat features a new composite material that Miken claims is more durable, consistent, and powerful than the old composite they used to use. This is due to the special alloy that was formulated for this specific bat, which is the strongest alloy that Miken has ever used.Miken 2021 Last Call USSSA Maxload Slowpitch Softball Bat

Special features:

  • It has an extended 12-inch sweet spot.
  • It has better control through the hitting zone due to the 100 % carbon fiber barrel.
  • It has a 12-inch barrel length.
  • It has triple matrix core technology.
  • It has Barrel Flex Technology and the revolutionary 100 COMP composite fibers

Pros:

  • It comes in different configurations.
  • It comes in different barrel lengths.
  • Approved for play in USSSA bat series

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

8. Demarini Senior Nautalai Mid-Load Slowpitch Softball Bat:

If you want to be the best player you can be, you must train hard, which means getting the right equipment. A quality slowpitch softball bat is essential for power hitters, and a bat is only as good as the team that makes it. The barrel is the most important part of any bat since it generates the most energy. The Nautalai Mid-Load features a lightweight and strong barrel, which is the perfect combination for a fast swing speed. The Nautalai bat is a mid-load slowpitch bat. It’s a two-piece composite bat of Demarini’s proprietary “Raised End Cap” technology. This technology, along with the bat’s “Full Barrel Design,” gives the bat a “midsize” feel, which is a great option for players who prefer to feel lighter when swinging the bat but also want a larger barrel to create some more meat in their swings.Demarini 2021 Senior Nautalai Mid-Load Larry Carter Signature Slowpitch Softball Bat

Special features:

  • It has a continuous fibre barrel.
  • The Znx alloy handle provides increased stiffness.
  • It has a 13” mid-load barrel.
  • It has more improved barrel performance.

Pros:

  • It is made in the USA.
  • Certified by USA standards.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

9. Axe Slowpitch Bat:

There are few things worse in slowpitch softball than hitting a ground ball to the shortstop and then having to wait for that slowpoke to get the ball and flip it to first base. And when you’re on a team with many slowpokes, you might as well go home. With that in mind, we’re looking at a couple of the fastest-pitched softball bats on the market to help you get that ball in play before the defence can encroach on the base path. End-Loaded USSSA Slowpitch Bat

Special features:

  • It has a variable-layer charged carbon barrel.
  • It has tri-flex technology.
  • It has improved durability.
  • It has a vibration-cancelling system.
  • It has a hyper-whip composite cap.

Pros:

  • It is approved by the USSSA etc.
  • It provides a more stable grip and stable control.
  • Gives a smooth and comfortable swing.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

10. Anderson Rocketech Slowpitch Softball Bat:

If you’re looking for a new slow-pitch softball bat but are unsure where to start, there’s a good chance you’re overwhelmed. With so many different softball bat choices on the market, it’s hard to know what to look for and which ones are actually worth the money. One of the hardest (and most painful) parts about playing slow-pitch softball is finding the right slow-pitch softball bat that fits your needs. There are tons of slow-pitch softball bats available on the market, making picking a bat a difficult challenge. The Anderson Rocketech Slowpitch Softball Bat is one of the best slow-pitch softball bats on the market and is designed to cover a whole range of slow-pitch softball players and their needs. It’s no secret that slow-pitch softball is growing in popularity, and as a result, more companies are entering the market to compete for players’ attention. The latest is Anderson, a company that has long been known for their baseball bats. While their slow-pitch offerings have been a part of the market for years, the company has recently upgraded their design to compete with other top brands.2021 Anderson Rocketech Slowpitch Softball Bat

See Also:   Best Softball Bats for 6 Year Old for 2023 Reviews & Guide [Ranked]

Special features:

  • It is constructed from 7075 alloys.
  • It has a 2-1/4th barrel.
  • It has a double-wall alloy design.
  • It has an end-load weight distribution.

Pros:

  • It comes in different weights.
  • The USSSA, USA, etc approve it.

Cons:

  • No shipment in Africa.

 

Slowpitch softball bat sizing Guide:

As one of the most popular team sports in the United States, slow-pitch softball is played by over 9 million men and women in over 8,500 leagues. Even though this game is very popular, it is often played by men and women who don’t have the proper equipment. Slow-pitch softball bats are different from most softball bats because of their shape. These are long, slender bats, and they are used to hit balls that are pitched slowly. If you are new to slow-pitch softball, having the right softball bat is important. As a result of the success of slowpitch softball bat reviews, we at (Technology) decided to make a blog post on slowpitch softball bat sizing guide. If you think the same as me, you must have encountered slowpitch softball bats. This is the most important thing in slowpitch. Choosing the right softball bat is a player’s most important decision, as it will define their performance on the field. When deciding which bat to choose, you want to consider the following factors: Length: Slow-pitch softball bats are measured in inches, and there are three standard sizes: 26”, 27”, and 28”. The length of the bat should be based on the size of the player and his or her ability to swing a long-handled bat. The length of the bat may also be based on the pitcher’s release point; a player may need a longer bat depending on how far away the pitcher is from home plate. We all know that hitting a softball isn’t easy. But maybe it’s even harder if you don’t have the right slow-pitch softball bat. I’m talking about the bat that is the perfect size for you. That’s why you must figure out what size you need before you start shopping for a new bat. Now, the good news is there’s a simple rule of thumb you can use to find the best slow-pitch softball bat for you. Technology is a tool used in our daily life, studies, work, and anywhere, so technology helps us a lot in our busy lives. The slow-pitch softball bat is a kind of technology in sports. The bat is made by some materials, which are aluminium, titanium or carbon fibre, and other materials so the bat is very helpful for the players in the game and if you want to buy the bat, you should look at the slow-pitch softball bat reviews first. Nowadays, even experienced players are aware of the advantages that a longer bat can bring to an at-bat, and they don’t just want to know that the bat is long; they want to know what length is best for them. With the right information, you can find the right softball bat length for you and improve your game. The slow-pitch softball bat sizing discussion is sure to grab your attention. Check out this guide for a more in-depth look at the sizing of slow-pitch softball bats.

How to choose the best slow-pitch softball bat:

A good slow-pitch softball bat will last from 1 to 3 years, depending on how often you use it. To determine how often you use your bat, you must ask yourself a few questions: How often do you practice? How often do you play?  How many games per season?  Do you play in tournaments? As you can see, there are various ways to use a slow-pitch softball bat.  Many recreational players prefer the traditional wood bat.  If you are a recreational player, you may only use your bat 1 time a week but play in four tournaments a year.  Your bat will get much use and must be replaced at this rate. Having the right equipment is a big part of any team sport, but it becomes especially important in softball, where your team’s success depends on you. Softball is a fast-paced game where a split second can mean the difference between a hit and a strikeout. Having the best softball bat on the field with you can help you make that difference. If you’re like most players, your bat is one of the most important pieces of your gear. After all, a good bat can make even the sloppiest of swings look like a home run, while a bad bat can make even the greatest hitters look like they just learned how to play the game. When it comes time to buy a softball bat there are a lot of choices out there, which can make things a bit confusing. To help you choose the perfect slow-pitch softball bat for you, we’ve gathered all the necessary information in one place. We’ve reviewed some of the best slow pitch softball bats on the market, and we’ll tell you what to look for when buying a slow-pitch softball bat. Choosing the best slow-pitch softball bat can challenge any player. There are many different options available, including designs, materials, weight, and length. Choosing the best slow pitch softball bat for you is an important decision because you’ll be using it often. Even if you are not an avid player, you might need a bat for recreational pick-up games or for your own personal use. When you are in the market for a new slow pitch softball bat, knowing what to look for can be difficult. There are so many options, from so many manufacturers, and they all seem to promise the same thing: more hits. But, if you look closely, you will notice how the softball bat is built and what is used to make it, can make or break its potential for success. Whether a beginner or an expert, you must know how to choose the best slow pitch softball bat. The first step is to consider the size of the barrel. This is the measurement that ranges from 20 to 26 inches. You must know your height and arm span to understand your choice. You also must consider the weight of the bat. This is not the same as the barrel measurement. You should look for a bat that weighs between 20 and 25 ounces. The heavier the bat, the harder it will hit the ball.

Slowpitch softball bat Rules & Regulations:

A softball bat is one of the most important pieces of equipment in softball. It’s your job to swing that bat and hit the ball. But before you try to hit a softball, you must know the rules and regulations of slow-pitch softball bats. The rules and regulations for slow-pitch softball bats are designed to keep the game fair and fun for everyone. When seeking to buy a slow-pitch softball bat, it is vital to be aware that you need to use the bat correctly. You need to use the slow-pitch softball bat correctly to be able to get the most out of it. One of the keys to successful slow-pitch softball is to use the right slow-pitch softball bat for you and for your style of play. If you don’t use a slow-pitch softball bat correctly, you will not be able to get the most out of it and will not be successful at playing it. Slow pitch softball is an exciting and even more exciting game to play well. A slow-pitch softball player needs to think tactically to be successful. Teams of 9 players play slowpitch softball – each player gets a turn at being on bat. The key to slow-pitch softball is making contact with the ball and getting on base. While no official statistic is kept, it is estimated that the average player can get on base about 40% of the time. The more on-base a player can get, the more opportunities, they have to score runs. Many players, however, tend to be too aggressive at the plate and swing at every pitch that comes their way. This can lead to striking. The slow pitch softball bat Rules & Regulations are basically the same as the fast-pitch ones. The only difference is the size; the slow-pitch softball is bigger than the fast-pitch softball. The softball bat material differs in slow pitch softball than in fast-pitch softball. In slow-pitch softball, the bat can’t be made of composite material; it has to be made of wood. Slow pitch softball is unique among the many bat-and-ball games, requiring a specific type of bat for official play. This is because slow pitch softball is a game designed to score as many runs as possible. Since the balls used in slow pitch are lighter and less bouncy than those in baseball, the pitchers rely on curve balls and other off-speed pitches. However, they are not as nimble as baseball pitchers, so they are prone to throwing wild pitches and even walking batters.There are plenty of rules and regulations you need to live by in order to play slow pitch softball. Luckily, remembering them all doesn’t take long, as long as you’re aware of the repercussions if you fail to do so. The main rule in slow pitch softball is not letting the ball leave the infield during play. It will be called a foul ball, and once the ball crosses the foul line, it will count in the statistic as a strike. These are some of the rules to be kept in mind.

See Also:   Best Fastpitch Bats for Slappers for 2023 Reviews & Guide [Expert Picks]

Faqs:

What makes a good slow-pitch softball bat?

You might be surprised to learn that when you buy a new slow-pitch softball bat, it is not guaranteed to be a good one. In fact, the bat you get might not even be made of good wood. The best slow-pitch softball bat is made from a block of good wood, like ash or maple, and has a solid construction. This means the manufacturer used glue or steel inserts to reinforce the weakest parts of the bat and prevent it from breaking. Choosing the right slow pitch softball bat is more than just a question of personal taste; It can be the difference between a team that scores many runs and a team that doesn’t. As a pitcher, you need a bat that will deliver big hits, which is why you need to know about the latest technologies and materials. Because there are so many different brands of slow pitch softball bats available, it can be tough to know where to start.

What is the best slowpitch softball bat on the market?

Slow pitch softball is popular in many United States and Canada regions. In fact, most people play the sport each year. It’s also one of the easiest and most affordable sports you can play. And it’s never too late to start. The bats that are used in slow-pitch softball are often a bit different than those used in fast-pitch softball and baseball. They’re typically made of lighter wood, and they’re crafted for durability and distance.f you’re searching for the best slow pitch softball bat on the market, it’s important to consider various factors before making your purchase. The right bat can help you improve your game, so it’s worth taking some time to find the right one for you.

What is the best bat weight for slow-pitch softball?

There are a lot of factors to consider when choosing a bat for slow-pitch softball, and bat weight is one of the most important. A heavier bat will increase your momentum, giving you more power to hit the ball. However, too heavy a bat can also make it harder to hit the ball and can strain your arm. The USASA slow-pitch softball bat standard dictates that a bat may weigh no more than 34 ounces and must weigh at least 3.0 ounces. The best bat for slow-pitch softball is a topic that has been covered extensively online. However, all the information tends to be scattered around the internet in different places. The best bat weight for slow-pitch softball depends on several factors. The game is played with a regulation softball and a softball bat that is the correct length and weight, with the length ranging between 27 and 34 inches, depending on the age group. If you are unsure of your bat’s weight, you can check it by looking at the markings on the bat’s barrel.

How many swings can a softball bat take?

While you don’t want to take 100 swings with the same softball bat, knowing the breaking point is a good idea. After all, you don’t want to be on the bench with a broken bat during a big tournament. Knowing when you need to retire a bat can also help you get the most out of your equipment. Fortunately, there are several ways to tell when a bat is worn out. So you’ve just bought your first slow-pitch softball bat, and you’re excited to try it out on the field. You’re eager to start swinging away, but you might not realize that the bat you brought home may not last as long as expected. A typical softball bat can have a life expectancy of 100 to 300 swings, depending on the wood type and how often you use it.

Do softball bats lose their pop?

Baseball bats have evolved over the years, from the primitive versions of wood to the more modern composite models made of aluminium or carbon fibres. But when you really get down to it, nothing has changed more than the bats themselves. Bat design has progressed so much that the wood bats of the past are nearly unrecognizable next to their modern-day counterparts. The biggest change has been in the material. Whereas wood bats are obviously wood, aluminum bats are obviously aluminum. But the composite and carbon fiber bats are a bit more difficult to identify. If you are a slow-pitch softball player, you need to be aware of the life cycle of a softball bat. A softball bat is designed to last for a limited number of hits. After it has hit the ball a certain number of times, the bat loses its pop.

Final recommendation:

A slow-pitch softball bat is a bat that is made for slow-pitch softball. A slow-pitch softball is the only type of softball that is legal in the Olympics. The slow-pitch softball bat is mainly made for softball. Every slow-pitch softball bat has a barrel, a handle, and a grip. These parts are all made out of wood. The bat may also have a metal end cap or two. This cap is usually made out of metal. The slow-pitch softball bat has to be approved by ISF. It is the goal of every slow-pitch softball team to be in the winner’s circle. No team has won every game. In order to achieve its goal and set the record for the most wins in its league, a slow-pitch softball team may need to hit a lot of home runs. A slow-pitch softball team that hits a lot of home runs wins games, and it is also good for the girls’ spirit.

Reference:

  1. Ciocco, M., & McDowell, M. (2008). Evaluation of the risk of batted-ball injury for slow-pitch softball pitchers. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technologyhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1243/17543371JSET8
  2. Kidokoro, S., & Morishita, Y. (2021). Relationship between impact characteristics and launch direction in softball hitting: A study involving elite players. PLOS ONE, 16(11), e0260520.  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0260520
  3. Molstad, S. M., Kluka, D. A., Love, P., Baylor, K. A., Covington, N. K., & Cook, T. L. (1994). Timing of Coincidence Anticipation by NCAA Division i Softball Athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skillshttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pms.1994.79.3f.1491